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Reform in the Ottoman Empire
Reform attempts in the Ottoman Empire refers to the efforts of updating the administration, economy and military of the Islamic empire that united much of the Islamic world in the Levant (Machrek), North Africa (Egypt and Maghreb), Anatolia and the Balkan (Rumelia), first in the face of political instabilities and revolts (in the 17th century) and later in the face of the rise of Western Europe –the first outcomes of such a rise starting to be felt with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 which challenged the Ottoman's status as a superpower and only taking an important toll on the Empire's security in the 19th century. Starting roughly in the 1600s, the reforms of the administration, the economy and the military were to continue under different emphases until the early 20th century and WWI. They met mixed successes as they were never entirely successful yet allowed the Empire to survive as an important political entity up until the end of WWI.〔Caroline Finkel. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923 (London: John Murray, 2005/New York: Basic Books, 2006).; Halil Inalcik, “The Emergence of Big Farms, Ciftliks: State, Landlords and Tenants,” Contributions a l’histoire economique et sociale de l’Empire ottoman. Collection Turcica 3 (1984): 105-26.; Halil Inalcik, “Centralization and Decentralization in Ottoman Administration.” In Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History. eds. Thomas Naff and Roger Owen (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977), 27–52, 362-69.; Bruce McGowan. Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800 (London and New York: Cambridge University Press / Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1981).
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==Stagnation ==
The stagnation period of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century, was marked by never-ending economic crises as well as a series of revolts called Jelali revolts in Anatolia (most of modern Turkey).〔Yüce-Sevim, p. 28〕 Some scholars like Katip Çelebi and Koçi Bey saw the need of reformation. They prepared reports to reform the institutions. Koçi Bey suggested to reduce the number of the soldiers in the standing army. This would reduce military spendings. He further suggested to improve the timar (fief) system. But his suggestions were impractical, for the empire was in constant warfare and the timar system could not be improved during the revolts.〔Akşin (editor)- Kunt, p.30〕 Katip Çelebi who was the sole Ottoman scholar of the 17th century to note the scientific developments out of Islamic World〔(Muslim heritage )〕 was more pessimistic. He saw no hope for returning to glorious days of the empire.〔Akşin (editor)- Kunt, p.34〕 But the reports lacked social and scientific measures and during most of the 17th century, the only solution to internal problems was to suppress the revolts with much bloodshed and to reduce the gold content in coins (i.e., devaluation). Such methods further increased the unrest. Especially the Turkmen people of Anatolia suffered much from the harsh measures. The only really effective reform attempt was that of grand vizier Tarhoncu Ahmed Pasha. In 1652, he introduced the system of annual budget in government spendings.〔Yüce - Sevim III, pp.111-112〕 But since he also tried to limit the expenditure of the palace, he was executed by the 11-year-old sultan Mehmet IV.
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